lucrum gaudium – Carnuntum as an ancient center of trade

Lucrum gaudium – profit brings joy: this saying, handed down from Pompeii, precisely sums up the essence of the Roman understanding of trade. In the Roman Empire, trade was not merely an economic necessity, but an expression of mobility, innovation, and social advancement. In Carnuntum, one of the most important transportation hubs on the Danube Limes, this role is particularly tangible: here, local agricultural production was linked to international long-distance trade, military demand to urban luxury, and everyday needs to wide-ranging trade networks.

Selling textiles at the Zeitreise Carnuntum 2024 event - © T. Mauerhofer

Trade and expansion went hand in hand in the Roman Empire. Rome's military presence brought with it the logistical challenge of supplying its troops – and with it, the market. Merchants (Latin: mercatores, negotiatores) and trade associations, known as collegia negotiantium, ensured supplies, especially for the stationed troops. A legion needed around one ton of grain per day – this could only be achieved through a functioning supply system.

Traders bore the full entrepreneurial risk: they invested their own capital, used freedmen or slaves as trusted agents, and navigated a complex system of regulations, taxes, and customs duties. Carnuntum was located in the customs district of the publicum portorii Illyrici, based in Poetovio (today's Ptuj in Slovenia), where a uniform customs tariff of around 2.5% of the value of the goods was levied.

Statuette of Mercury (inv. no. CAR-M-3306), mosaic depicting Mercury and Fortuna (inv. no. CAR-S-1849), and statuette of Mercury (inv. no. CAR-M-3309) - © Landessammlungen NÖ

As the patron saint of trade, Mercury—god of commerce, travelers, and thieves—was very popular in Carnuntum. Bronze figures depict him wearing a winged cap, carrying a marsupium (money bag) and a kerykeion (snake staff). Merchants revered him as a guarantor of economic success.

Carnuntum's importance was largely due to its location: the city lay at the intersection of the Limes Road, the Amber Road, and the Pannonian Military Road. These long-distance roads, built by the military, were not only transport routes but also manifested imperial order and control. Amphorae containing oil from Baetica, wine from Gaul, and fish sauces from Hispania arrived in the city via these routes and were then transported further into the hinterland.

River shipping on the Danube also played an important role. Milestones, rest stations (mansiones), the imperial postal service (cursus publicus), and beneficiarii for control – all this formed a finely tuned network of mobility. The famous Tabula Peutingeriana, a late antique street and station directory, documents this structure – with Carnuntum as a prominent station.

Excerpt from the Tabula Peutingeriana showing the Limes Road and Carnuntum - © Wikimedia Commons 

In addition to supplying basic necessities, Carnuntum was also a trading center for high-quality imported goods. Olive oil, wine, olives, dates, figs, fish sauces—all these goods were transported from the Mediterranean region to the city in specially produced amphorae. Inscriptions, stamps, and painted inscriptions (tituli picti) provide information about their origin, contents, and recipients. A special example of an immigrant merchant himself is Marcus Mulvius from Iudaea, whose name is documented on a gravestone and an amphora from Carnuntum. He may have come to the Danube in the course of the legio XV Apollinaris' transfer after the Jewish War – evidence of the great mobility within the empire:

Tomb inscription of Mulvius - © Landessammlungen NÖ, photo: Ortolf Harl 2011

Fine tableware (mainly terra sigillata) initially came from Italy, then from centers in southern Gaul such as La Graufesenque and Banassac, and later from workshops in central Gaul and the Rhineland. Roman table culture was also a visible expression of prosperity and lifestyle in Carnuntum in Pannonia.

However, no long-distance trade can function without an agricultural foundation. In the surrounding area of Carnuntum, estates known as villae rusticae produced goods for their own use and for the market. They grew emmer wheat, barley, millet, and oats, as well as legumes and a variety of vegetables and fruits. Livestock farming complemented the agricultural spectrum: cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens were used for food and transport logistics.

The products were transported to the city and sold there at markets or directly at tabernae, small shops with sales counters facing the street. In Carnuntum itself, trade was omnipresent. Tabernae shaped the cityscape as did market stalls at the forum. Supplies were provided by local producers as well as specialized traders. Sales, storage, and processing took place in the immediate vicinity—as in the reconstructed “House of the Oil Merchant,” which impressively illustrates the economic importance of olive oil in ancient times.

Transport amphorae in the house of the oil merchant in Carnuntum - © T. Mauerhofer 

Carnuntum was more than just an outpost on the Limes: it was an economic hub, a place where production, trade, and consumption were embedded in a functioning system. The city combined regional agriculture with international long-distance trade and military needs with civilian luxury. The living rooms of the Romans of Carnuntum thus also reflected the vast world of the Roman Empire.

Event tip: On October 25 and 26, the Roman town of Carnuntum will open its doors for a very special weekend experience: At In the Living Rooms of the Romans, you will meet the inhabitants of Carnuntum from 1,700 years ago in the Roman quarter—portrayed by cultural mediators and reenactors who authentically recount the lives of Roman families, craftsmen, and merchants.