Rediscovering Lost Colors: Wall and Ceiling Paintings from Carnuntum

When people think of Roman wall paintings today, the famous images from Pompeii are probably the first thing that comes to mind. Yet remarkable remnants of such paintings have also been preserved in Carnuntum: finds from excavations show that here, too, walls and ceilings were once colorful, elaborately decorated, and designed with great artistic care.

Yet in the Roman world, paintings were far more than mere wall decorations. They structured spaces, set accents, imitated precious materials, and lent buildings atmosphere. Color, patterns, and images were what made architecture complete. What today survives mostly only in small fragments was originally a central part of the spatial effect. Carnuntum in Roman times was thus not a city of bare stone, but a colorful, visually staged settlement.

In the civilian quarter of Carnuntum, in particular, these lost worlds of color can be reconstructed surprisingly well in some places. New research shows that not only were the walls painted here, but the ceilings were also elaborately decorated. The thermal baths and the villa urbana, in particular, have yielded numerous clues to such decorations. This provides a glimpse into an aspect of everyday Roman life that is often difficult to grasp archaeologically.

Ceiling paintings, in particular, deserve special attention. In the northwestern provinces of the Roman Empire, they are rarely as well-documented as they are in Carnuntum. This is precisely why the finds from the civilian town are of particular significance. They make it clear that rooms were not only built for functional purposes but were also deliberately shaped visually—even in places where heat, humidity, and heavy use actually created unfavorable conditions for painting.

Wall and ceiling paintings in the sala thermarum at the thermal baths in the Roman quarter - © T. Mauerhofer 

Roman wall painting was based on carefully built-up layers of plaster onto which pigments were applied. Mineral, plant-based, or organic pigments were used. Depending on the scope of the project, the artisans’ skill, and financial resources, different techniques were employed. The fresco is particularly well known. In this technique, the pigments were applied to the still-wet lime plaster. As the plaster dried, the paint bonded with the surface. The result was durable and rich in color, but required quick and precise work. In addition, there was painting on dry plaster, usually referred to as secco. This technique was more flexible but generally less durable because the paint lay more loosely on the surface and did not bond as firmly with the substrate. 

Fragments of a coffered ceiling from the villa urbana (Inv. No. CAR-W-3) and white-ground painting with red striped decoration from the Civil City Baths (Inv. No. CAR-W-6) - © Landessammlungen NÖ

Stucco — finely crafted plaster that could be smoothed, profiled, or sculpted — also played an important role. It allowed walls not only to be painted but also to be divided and given architectural structure. Cornices, frames, and decorative panels could thus be further highlighted. Finally, stucco lustro was particularly elaborate. This involved smoothing and compacting a very fine lime plaster to create a glossy, almost marble-like surface. This technique was costly and demanding, but it produced a particularly high-quality effect. In Carnuntum, too, the preserved fragments show that some rooms were lavishly furnished. Polished surfaces, bold colors, and carefully structured decorations reveal that interiors were not merely designed for practicality but were also intended to be representative.

Apsidal hall in the Villa Urbana in the Roman Quarter; the painting was executed using the stucco lustro technique - © T. Mauerhofer 

Unlike in Pompeii or Herculaneum, the paintings from the civilian quarter of Carnuntum have mostly survived only in fragments. Nevertheless, they provide important insights today. Of particular significance is the collection of finds from the villa urbana, where several thousand pieces were recovered from a debris pit. These finds are apparently linked to a destructive event—likely an earthquake in the mid-4th century CE—and can therefore be dated with relative accuracy. The reconstructed decorations include architectural painting, plant motifs, figurative representations, and marble imitations. Striking features include bold colors such as red, blue, and yellow, as well as finely executed frames and decorative patterns. Such decorations demonstrate that Carnuntum drew inspiration from supra-regional Roman styles but adapted and varied them locally.

Plant motifs in the newly reconstructed rooms of the thermal baths in the Roman quarter - © T. Mauerhofer 

Ceiling paintings are rare in archaeological contexts. When ceilings collapse, the painted surfaces usually shatter into countless small pieces. This makes it all the more remarkable that several systems can be at least partially reconstructed in Carnuntum. At least two different types of ceilings can be distinguished in the villa urbana: a vaulted ceiling with figurative and ornamental medallions, and a flat ceiling with a geometric coffered system. This flat ceiling imitated a wooden coffered ceiling and was decorated with colored panels and rosettes. Such ceilings were not merely decorative; they also visually signified differences in the status of the rooms. Particularly elaborate systems are found in representative areas, while simpler patterns can be attributed to more functional rooms. Ceiling painting was thus not merely decoration, but part of a deliberate architectural hierarchy.

Painting from the sala thermarum in the Civil Baths depicting a dancer (Inv.-Nr. CAR-W-7) - © Landessammlungen NÖ

Painting was by no means a given, especially in thermal baths. Heat, humidity, and steam took a heavy toll on painted surfaces. For this reason, builders often preferred to use more durable materials such as mosaics or marble cladding. This makes the preserved ceiling painting from the now-reconstructed thermal baths in the Roman Quarter all the more remarkable. It depicts a regular pattern of green leaf stems forming a lattice-like system. Flowers or fruits appear in the spaces between them. The decoration appears both orderly and lively. It structures the surface without seeming rigid, combining ornamental clarity with botanical abundance. 

Reconstruction of the ceiling painting in the sala thermarum of the Civil City Baths - © C. M. Behling 2016 

It is particularly interesting that figurative elements apparently also formed part of this ceiling decoration. One fragment depicts the upper body of a half-naked figure wearing decorative armbands. Together with two other fragments, this piece forms part of a paneled pilaster painting and is framed at the upper edge by a green leaf garland on a yellow background. Against a blue background, the upper body of a naked woman is recognizable. Based on the bracelets on her upper arms and the oval object in her right hand—identified as a tympanum—she has previously been identified as a dancer. Such elements suggest that the ceiling was not merely decorative but part of a carefully conceived pictorial program.

Fragments of wall paintings, discovered during excavations in 2017 in the southern section of the villa urbana - © N. Kirchengast 

Such paintings can be attributed to specific rooms through architectural analysis, archaeological evidence, and material examination. However, research into Carnuntum’s wall paintings was long hampered by difficult conditions regarding the preservation of the material. While earlier excavations did uncover material, they often documented it inadequately. Much was lost or can no longer be reliably attributed today. Only recent systematic studies have revealed the potential inherent in these fragments. Through careful documentation, comparison, and reconstruction, it is now possible to gain a much clearer picture of Roman interior design in Carnuntum. This is precisely what makes these finds so fascinating: step by step, from many small fragments, a vision of the colorful rooms of the ancient city is emerging once again.

Restoration and reconstruction work on the ceiling painting in the sala thermarum at the Civil City Baths - © T. Mauerhofer 

This is particularly evident right now in the sala thermarum. Work is currently underway there to reconstruct the ceiling painting discussed here. In this way, visitors can once again experience some of the former colorfulness and spatial impact of the Carnuntum Baths. Research and reconstruction are closely intertwined here—and are literally allowing the ancient baths to shine in new splendor.