The Children of Carnuntum – Growing Up on the Frontier of the Roman Empire

Anyone strolling through the reconstructed Roman quarter of Carnuntum today will encounter magnificent residences, thermal baths, and shops. One imagines merchants, artisans, soldiers, and wealthy citizens. Yet one demographic often remains invisible: children. And yet they likely made up about a third of the population at that time.

Children were of great importance in Roman society. They ensured the family’s continuity, preserved the family name, and, not least, served as a form of retirement security for their parents. At the same time, childhood in antiquity was marked by constant uncertainty. Disease, malnutrition, and limited medical options meant that many children never reached adulthood.

Childbirth in the Roman world was always fraught with risks. Although midwives and doctors were available, most births took place at home. Complications could quickly become life-threatening. Consequently, religious rituals and protective deities were of great importance. Numerous deities were invoked during pregnancy and childbirth to protect both mother and child.

After birth, the newborn was presented to the father of the family: only when he officially recognized the child and took it into his arms was it accepted as a member of the family. A few days later, the child was named; since the early imperial period, newborns also had to be officially registered. Despite all the care, the risk remained high. Estimates suggest that about 40 percent of all children died within their first year of life. More than half did not reach the age of five. Only those who survived the critical first years had a good chance of reaching adulthood.

Gold Bulla (Inv. No. CAR-M-3506) - © Landessammlungen NÖ

One of the best-known symbols of Roman childhood was the so-called bulla. This small, usually round amulet was hung around the neck of free-born boys shortly after birth. It was intended to protect its wearer from misfortune, illness, and evil influences. Bullae could be made of bronze, silver, gold, or leather. Their design depended directly on the family’s wealth. Inside, they often contained small protective objects or magical substances, the exact composition of which remains largely unknown today. The bulla was far more than just jewelry—it served as a visible sign of belonging to Roman civil society.

Upon transitioning to adulthood, usually between the ages of 15 and 17, young men removed the bulla as part of a solemn ritual. Together with the children’s toga, it was consecrated to the family’s household gods. This officially marked the end of childhood. Whether girls also regularly wore bullae remains a matter of debate to this day. Some literary and archaeological evidence suggests that at least girls from certain families possessed similar protective amulets.

Roman Mill Game at the Children's Festival in the Roman city of Carnuntum - © T. Mauerhofer 

Even though living conditions were often harsher than they are today, there was still time for play. Archaeological finds from across the Roman Empire reveal an astonishing variety of toys. Children played with dolls made of terracotta or ivory, with marbles, balls, hoops, or small animal figurines. Some of these toys bear a striking resemblance to modern children’s toys.

Around the age of seven, a new phase of life began for many children. Children from wealthy families attended school or received private tutoring. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were considered essential foundations for later life. Other children began helping out early on in the household, in workshops, or on farms. Expectations for girls and boys differed significantly. Girls were prepared for their future roles as wives and mothers, while boys gradually grew into the responsibilities of a Roman citizen.

Children playing in the streets of Carnuntum - © A. Achsnit (Children's faces have been blurred using OpenAI)

Not all children enjoyed the same opportunities. A significant portion of Carnuntum’s population consisted of female and male slaves. Their children, too, grew up within their owners’ households. For slave children, their entire future depended on the decisions of their owners. Some were raised alongside their masters’ children and later took on specialized roles in the household or as artisans. Others had to work from an early age or were sold. Nevertheless, ancient sources indicate that many owners held so-called vernae — slave children born into the household — in high regard, as they were integrated into the household’s structure from birth.

Ceramic doll's head (Inv.-No. CAR-K-3548) - © Landessammlungen NÖ

Children leave far fewer traces in the archaeological record than adults. Representative burial monuments are usually associated with adults. Nevertheless, modern archaeology is increasingly succeeding in bringing the youngest members of ancient societies to light. Some grave inscriptions provide information about names, age, and social status, while finds such as toys, miniature vessels, small shoes, or pieces of jewelry can also indicate the presence of children.

Human remains are also among the most important sources. The age at death can often be estimated based on dental development and bone growth. An extraordinary find comes from the area of a late antique sewer in the civilian city of Carnuntum. There, the remains of a total of 31 very young children were identified — including four fetuses and 27 newborns. The sewer had been abandoned toward the end of the 3rd century CE and was later used as a dumping ground. Such findings are known from various parts of the Roman Empire. Infants and very young children were often not buried in regular cemeteries, but within the settlements. The reasons for this are still debated today. They may reflect specific burial customs linked to high infant mortality and the fact that newborns had not yet been fully integrated into society.

The children of Carnuntum tell us far more than just individual life stories. They offer insights into family structures, social differences, health, diet, and religious beliefs in an ancient metropolis on the Danube frontier. Even though they left behind only a few archaeological traces, these are all the more valuable. They serve as a reminder that life in Carnuntum was shaped not only by adults, but also by thousands of children who were born, played, learned, and grew up here.