Morituri te salutant - Gladiator combats in ancient Carnuntum
By Nisa Iduna Kirchengast - Editors: Daniel Kunc, Thomas MauerhoferHardly any other aspect of Roman culture exerts such a fascination to this day as the gladiatorial games. What once originated in the context of religious rituals and political stagings developed into a mass spectacle - a spectacle of blood, discipline, glory and imperial propaganda. In Carnuntum in particular, archaeological finds, inscriptions and architectural remains provide fascinating insights into the Roman world of entertainment.
Origin and change of a Roman institution
The gladiator games (munera gladiatoria) originally arose from the ritual honoring of the dead by the Roman upper classes. The first documented fight took place on the Forum Boarium in Rome in 264 BC. It quickly developed into a popular form of entertainment that spread far beyond the capital. Increasingly, the games were organized and financed by private donors or city officials.
The imperial festival calendar grew continuously: 175 public holidays are recorded in Rome for the year 354 AD - including 10 for gladiator fights and animal hunts. According to written sources, Emperor Traian, for example, had more than 11,000 animals and countless people killed in the amphitheater as an expression of imperial power during his triumphal celebrations over the Dacians.
The amphitheater of the military city © Römerstadt Carnuntum
Carnuntum: Arena on the edge of the empire
So-called spectacula also took place regularly in Carnuntum. Two surviving amphitheatres - a third is no longer visible today - are evidence of the local enthusiasm for gladiator fights. In the beliefs of the time, it was crucial to gain the favor of the gods before every fight: In the amphitheater of the military city, a cult space for the goddess Nemesis was uncovered near the west gate. This syncretic patron goddess of gladiators, also responsible for justice, fate and victory, was particularly worshipped here by officers of the XIV Legion. Her presence in arenas is also documented from other provincial towns such as Aquincum (today's Budapest) or Scarbantia (today's Sopron).
Animal fights - the morning program
The mornings of the games belonged to the venationes - the animal hunts. While exotic animals such as elephants, crocodiles and rhinoceroses were put on display in Rome, in Carnuntum the focus was mostly on local fauna. Bone finds prove that brown bears, wild boars, deer and possibly wolves were hunted. Occasionally, however, exotic animals also found their way into the arena: bone finds attest to a camel and a big cat - presumably a leopard - in the camp city.
These animals were far more than exotic showpieces: They symbolized the domination of the “foreigner”, a vivid expression of Roman superiority. Elsewhere too, the use of animals was an integral part of arena culture - as a spectacular find from York in England shows: A pelvic bone with bite marks from a feline predator was discovered there - the first material evidence of the use of such animals in arena combat. Apparently the victim was attacked while lying on the ground.
Gladiator fight between thraex and murmillo - by the way, this is also how it will be fought at the Gladiator Day in Carnuntum on May 25, 2025 © Römerstadt Carnuntum
Gladiators: discipline, danger and glory
Gladiators were not necessarily doomed to die. The famous cry “Ave Caesar, morituri te salutant” is only historically documented once - during a naval battle (the so-called naumachia) under Claudius. Many fighters, often prisoners of war, slaves or those sentenced to death, were professionally trained in gladiator schools (ludi gladiatorii). However, some also volunteered - the so-called auctorati - attracted by fame, adventure and financial reward. Gladiators were initially trained under the supervision of experienced, often former fighters with wooden training weapons, which were heavier than their metal counterparts in order to train endurance and technique safely.
A gladiator could survive numerous fights - some sources speak of up to 150 - but the danger was real: bioarchaeological studies from the gladiator tomb at Ephesus show that more than half of those buried died from direct battle wounds. Skulls with trident wounds, neck stabs and pierced vertebrae document the brutality of the battles. At the same time, medical care was provided - for example by the famous physician Galenos, who worked for a time as a gladiator doctor in Pergamon and Rome.
Gladiator types
Fights were fought according to fixed rules in different combinations, always under the supervision of the lanista, the ‘manager’, owner and trainer of the gladiators. The pairing of Murmillo against Thraex or Retiarius - with net and trident - against the heavily armored Secutor was particularly popular. Thanks to archaeological finds as well as written and pictorial sources, the equipment and appearance of these gladiator types can be reconstructed:
Murmillo: The murmillo was a heavily armed gladiator whose name is derived from a sea fish (“murma”). His equipment was characteristic: a short sword (gladius), a large rectangular shield (scutum), a helmet with a visor grille, high crest and feather ornaments, as well as an arm guard (manica) and a greave (ocrea). The honeycomb-like openwork visor grille of his helmet is particularly well known. The confrontation with the thraex was one of the most popular gladiator fights.
Thraex: The thraex (“Thracian”) was one of the lighter armed gladiator types and was known for his agile fighting technique. He wore a loincloth (subligaculum) with a belt, a bracer (manica) on his right arm and a high greave (ocrea) on his left leg. His large helmet with a pronounced visor and high, curved crest was striking. The thraex was armed with a short, curved blade - the sica - with which he could thrust behind his opponent's shield.
Retiarius: The retiarius was a lightly armed gladiator whose equipment was strongly reminiscent of the fishing trade. Armed with a fuscina (trident), a rete (throwing net) and a pugio (short sword), he relied on speed and agility. The trident was not only used to control distance, but could also inflict fatal injuries. The retiarius usually did not wear a helmet, but instead wore arm protection and occasionally shoulder armor (galerus).
Secutor: The secutor (“pursuer”) was a heavily armed opponent of the retiarius. Like the retiarius, he wore a loincloth (subligaculum) and a wide belt, but unlike his light opponent, his right arm was protected by a bracer. To defend himself against attacks with the trident, he wore an ocrea (greave) on his left leg. The secutor was also equipped with a curved rectangular shield (scutum) and a short sword (gladius). His most distinctive feature, however, was the smooth, close-fitting helmet with small eyeholes, which was specially designed to avoid getting caught in the retiarius' net - and made him instantly recognizable as a secutor.
The amphitheater at Carnuntum also yielded archaeological finds such as the visor of a murmillo helmet or the prongs of a trident - silent witnesses to bloody battles. Although female gladiators are rarely documented, their existence is attested by literary sources (e.g. Tacitus, Cassius Dio, Suetonius, Juvenal) and isolated archaeological finds.
Archaeological finds from Carnuntum: a lamp depicting a gladiator, statuette of a gladiator, trident and visor © Landessammlungen NÖ, Archäologischer Park Carnuntum
Propaganda of power - mirror of society
The games were not just for entertainment, but were also an instrument of power politics. Those who organized munera increased their social standing. Even philosophers such as Cicero or Seneca occasionally praised the courage of the gladiators - and at the same time criticized the uninhibited cruelty of the spectators.
Quae potest homini esse polito delectatio, cum aut homo imbecillus a valentissima bestia laniatur aut praeclara bestia venabulo transverberatur? Quae tamen, si videnda sunt, saepe vidisti; neque nos, qui haec spectamus, quicquam novi vidimus.
"What entertainment can it be to an educated man when either a weak man is mauled by a very strong wild beast or a magnificent animal is pierced by a hunting spear? And yet you have often seen this, if it must be seen; and we who contemplate this have seen nothing new."
Cicero, Ad familiares VII 1,3
Executions and persecutions of Christians also took place in the arena: Under Marcus Aurelius, for example, the condemned were left to the animals (ad bestias). The arena was therefore not only a place of entertainment, but also a stage for political power, justice, ideology and social representation.
Event tip:
Experience authentic gladiator fights in the amphitheater on May 25, 2025 at the Gladiator Day, immerse yourself in the fascinating world of ancient competitions and have your picture taken as a gladiator at the new photo station - a spectacular event for Roman enthusiasts!
Today, other animals, such as the shy ground squirrel, populate the ruins of Carnuntum's arenas © Römerstadt Carnuntum