Shields for Rome's legions: the Fabrica Scutaria of Carnuntum

Nothing worked in the Roman army without the shield - it was the legionaries' central means of defense, served as an active weapon in close combat and was also an expression of Roman order, discipline and military identity. Roman soldiers used oval shields from as early as the 1st century BC, before the rectangular scutum became the dominant shield type in the early Empire. 

These shields consisted of several glued layers of plywood and could weigh up to ten kilograms. The front was usually painted in color or covered with leather, felt or fabric. A surrounding metal frame not only served as reinforcement, but also provided an even surface for various decorative elements.

While late Roman shields of the 3rd and 4th centuries AD were often designed in strong primary colors such as red or blue, depictions from the 1st century primarily show shades of white, yellow or cream. However, the shield color was far more than just ornamental - it had a symbolic and psychological function: a bright crimson is particularly common, which was not only intended to be terrifying, but also embodied strength, power and Mars, the god of war.

Shields of LEGIO XV APOLLINARIS COHORS I and LEGIO XXI RAPAX at the Roman festival in Carnuntum - © Römerstadt Carnuntum

Decorations in the form of gold-coloured lightning bolts, wings or legionary emblems individualized the shields and at the same time signalled membership of a particular unit - a visual uniform with a targeted intimidating effect. A metal shield boss (umbo) additionally protected the wearer's hand. From the 3rd century onwards, the oval shield returned to use among the infantry, while the cavalry preferred smaller round, round-oval or hexagonal shield shapes.

The scutum was therefore much more than a purely defensive object: it functioned as a sign of recognition, a medium of military communication and a carrier of imperial symbolism. Its shape was ideal for closed battle formations and its surface provided space for colorful emblems and religious motifs.

There is evidence of a state shield workshop (fabrica scutaria) in Carnuntum in the 4th century AD. This facility is documented in the Notitia dignitatum, a late Roman state manual that documents the civil and military structures of the empire around 400 AD. In addition to the command of the Danube fleet (praefectus classis Histricae), the Carnutensis scutaria is also listed there (Not. dign. occ. 9, 20; 34, 28). According to written records, other workshops are located in the legionary camps of Lauriacum, today's Enns in Upper Austria, and in Aquincum, today's Budapest.

Mention of the Carnutensis scutaria in the Notitia Dignitatum, the copy of a late antique state handbook (Bavarian State Library Munich, around 1542, sheet 141 no. 284, 285)

It has not yet been possible to clearly locate this workshop archaeologically. However, there are numerous indications of its existence from excavations carried out between 1968 and 1977. In the eastern praetentura, the front section of the legionary camp, eight round basins were uncovered along the via sagularis. Today, these would be at the level of the road between Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg, west of the amphitheater of the military town.

The approximately 1.2 m large basins made of air-dried mud bricks with a waterproof inner lining show no traces of fire, but clear evidence of water-intensive work processes. These facilities were apparently used as tanning basins in the first half of the 4th century and served to meet the increased demand for leather from local shield production.

One of the two circular buildings (tanners' basins?) uncovered by Maximilian von Groller-Mildensee in the Carnuntum legionary camp (Groller, 1905 Fig.50b)

Comparable facilities are known from Roman tanneries - for example in Pompeii, Ostia or Virunum. Ethnographic parallels, such as with traditional tanneries in Morocco, also suggest that the basins were facilities for soaking, fleshing and dyeing leather. Leather, in turn, was a key material for military equipment: for shield coverings as well as for tents, straps and shoes. A tannery would therefore be a logical addition to the production of shields.

It is therefore logical to associate these facilities with the state shield factory mentioned in the Notitia dignitatum, which was probably established in Carnuntum under Emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD) and henceforth covered the arms requirements of the province of Pannonia prima.

The funerary stele of Lucius Lucceius Blaesus in the Lapidarium of the Museum Carnuntinum. The stele shows a depiction of variously shaped shields in the intermediate frieze, which refer to his military career and the variety of Roman army equipment - © Römerstadt Carnuntum

Carnuntum is therefore one of the few sites where archaeological evidence of facilities in the vicinity of a historically attested late antique fabrica can be found. The actual shield factory is thought to have been located in the central storage area to the north-east of the praetorium. Traces of craft activity were found there - such as bronze waste, antler remains and sling balls. Even if these finds cannot be unequivocally attributed to the fabrica scutaria, the interplay of archaeological features, building structures and written records provides a coherent overall picture: Carnuntum was not only a military site in Late Antiquity, but also an important center of Roman armaments production.

Event tip

On the first weekend in May, the people of Carnuntum come back to life: Under the theme of “Craftsmen for Rome's Legions”, cultural mediators from the Roman city will embody historical inhabitants of ancient Carnuntum and tell stories about the crafts associated with the shield workshop and life in the metropolis on the Danube Limes.