Dining in Carnuntum: Food Culture Along the Danube Limes

If one is to believe certain ancient authors, life along the middle Danube was not particularly enjoyable from a culinary standpoint. The Pannonian governor Cassius Dio lamented the damp and cold climate, poor wine, and the local population’s alleged preference for barley and millet. However, archaeological finds from Carnuntum paint a much more diverse picture: The tables were set with grain porridge and bread, legumes and vegetables, fruit, cheese, meat, and fish. These were complemented by wine, locally brewed beer, and imported specialties from distant parts of the Roman Empire.

Food served not only to nourish the body. What people ate, how the meals were prepared, and with whom they shared them revealed a great deal about their origins, wealth, and social status. While most residents of Carnuntum ate simple stews, porridges, and bread, wealthy households were able to impress their guests with elaborately seasoned dishes, imported ingredients, and precious tableware. Carnuntum’s cuisine thus combined regional traditions with Mediterranean dietary habits.

Food in the reconstructed kitchen of the House of Lucius in the Roman Quarter - © T. Mauerhofer 

How do we know what people ate nearly 2,000 years ago? We owe much of our knowledge to, of all things, waste, latrines, and sewers. Unlike animal remains, plant-based foods usually decompose quickly in Central European soil. The remains that survive are primarily those that were charred in fires or mineralized under specific conditions — such as the phosphate-rich deposits in latrines. 

In Carnuntum, both forms of preservation are present. In the main sewer beneath Weststraße in the civilian city, mineralized apple seeds as well as charred and mineralized grape seeds were discovered, among other things. Fruits of true celery come from a latrine near Petronell Castle. Other plant remains ended up in wells or were preserved in burned-out storage buildings. Together with animal bones, fish remains, amphorae, and cooking utensils, these unassuming finds paint a surprisingly detailed picture of Carnuntum’s cuisine.

A variation of “puls,” the Roman grain porridge - © T. Mauerhofer

Grains formed the basis of the diet. In Carnuntum, evidence has been found of spelt, emmer, common wheat, barley, rye, and millet, among others. These were used to make bread, flatbread, and porridge: “Puls” was likely particularly common — a thick grain porridge that could be supplemented with vegetables, herbs, cheese, or meat, depending on what was available. The quality of the bread also varied: Light-colored bread made from finely sifted wheat flour was considered a delicacy, while coarser bread and porridge made from other grains were more common in the daily diet of the broader population.

The importance of millet is illustrated by a burned-down granary in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg that contained large quantities of foxtail millet. This hardy grain, which stored well, was particularly suitable for porridge and bread. The diet was supplemented by legumes such as field beans, lentils, and peas. They provided protein, had a long shelf life, and, together with grains, made it possible to maintain a filling diet even without regular meat consumption.

Grape seeds from the Weststraße excavation site in Carnuntum - © Thanheiser/Heiss 2014

Vegetables, herbs, and fruits also played an important role. Onions, garlic, cabbage, celery, and various leafy and root vegetables were eaten fresh or used in soups and other dishes. Archaeobotanical evidence from Carnuntum includes apples, pears, plums, figs, grapes, melons, and mulberries; in addition to wild fruits and nuts gathered from the surrounding area. Fruit could be eaten fresh, dried, or preserved. It was sweetened primarily with honey or concentrated grape must. Potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers, and corn, on the other hand, were not yet part of Roman cuisine — they did not reach Europe until after the European expansion into the Americas.

Animal remains from House 2 in the civilian quarter of Carnuntum - © K. Klein/University of Vienna 2018

Although meat was part of the diet, not everyone consumed it in the same quantities. Beef and pork were particularly important, along with sheep and goats, as well as chicken, duck, and goose. Wild animals played a lesser role, but their consumption has also been documented. Meat could be boiled, fried, or grilled; made into sausages; smoked; cured; or pickled in vinegar, oil, and honey.

The Danube and smaller bodies of water in the surrounding area also provided food. Various river fish and mussels were caught and consumed. Vineyard snails were also part of the diet. Since small fish bones and fragile mussel shells are less likely to survive or were not systematically recovered in older excavations, their actual importance was likely greater than the archaeological finds initially suggest. Fresh milk had a limited shelf life without refrigeration. It was therefore often processed into cheese. Sheep’s and goat’s milk were particularly well-suited for this purpose. Through curdling, pressing, salting, drying, or smoking, a nutritious product was created that could be stored and transported. Cheese, along with bread, onions, and olives, was a typical component of a simple meal.

Cooking pot with loop handles (Inv.-No. CAR-M-2702), southern Spanish fish sauce amphora (Inv.-No. CAR-K-2500) and Terra Sigillata decorated bowl (Inv.-No. CAR-K-3302) from Carnuntum - © Lower Austrian State Collections

Roman cuisine was by no means bland. Herbs such as dill, mint, thyme, savory, and rue were used to season porridges, sauces, and meat dishes, often combining sweet, sour, salty, or bitter flavors. Of particular importance was garum, or liquamen, a fermented fish sauce that, much like salt, was used to season numerous dishes. Olives and olive oil were also imported from southern regions. Amphora finds show that Carnuntum was closely integrated into the empire’s trade networks and that Mediterranean products such as fish sauce and oil made their way as far as the Danube.

Cooking in the thermopolium of the Zivilstadttherme in the Roman Quarter - © T. Mauerhofer

The kitchen of a Carnuntum household had little in common with a modern kitchen. Cooking was done over an open fire, usually on a masonry hearth made of stone or brick. Pots were placed directly over the embers, on tripods, or hung from hooks above the fire; grates and skewers were used for grilling and roasting. The kitchenware included cooking pots, cauldrons, pans, bowls, jugs, strainers, and grating bowls. Herbs, spices, and other ingredients were crushed and mixed in heavy ceramic mortars. Amphorae and large storage vessels, known as dolia, were used to store oil, wine, grain, or pickled foods. The temperature could only be regulated by the amount of embers, the distance from the fire, and the position of the cooking vessel. Cooking therefore required experience. Many dishes were likely porridges, soups, and stews, as they could be prepared in a single pot and made efficient use of fuel.

Freshly prepared dishes at the Late Antiquity Festival in Carnuntum 2024 - © T. Mauerhofer

Not all residents of Carnuntum dined in a triclinium. In more modest households, meals were eaten in the kitchen or an adjoining room, seated on benches, chairs, or stools. Breakfast (ientaculum) and lunch (prandium) were usually simple, while the cena in the afternoon or evening was the most important meal. Wealthy families, on the other hand, dined on klines — a type of reclining couch — served by servants and enjoying multiple courses. Fine tableware, imported ingredients, and elaborately prepared dishes also served as a means of social prestige: the banquet was at once a venue for socializing, conducting business, and the ostentatious display of status.

Waiters serving freshly prepared dishes at the Late Antiquity Festival in Carnuntum 2024 - © T. Mauerhofer

The diet in Carnuntum was neither exclusively “Roman” nor simply a continuation of local traditions. Grains, legumes, wild berries, and river fish were complemented by olive oil, wine, fish sauce, and Mediterranean crops. Some ingredients were imported, while others were grown in the surrounding countryside or cultivated in gardens within the city. It was precisely this combination that defined Carnuntum’s cuisine. It shows how the Roman Empire made its presence felt in everyday life: not only through roads, thermal baths, and monumental structures, but also in the cooking pot. What people ate in Carnuntum tells a story of agriculture and trade, of social inequality, of cultural exchange — and of the daily task of preparing a tasty meal from the ingredients available.